Glossary

aesthetic:

relating to beauty and taste, in this instance to do with the looks or appearance of an area

aggrieved:

unhappy or distressed. An aggrieved person is someone who has been unfairly treated or had an injustice perpetrated against them.

allocation:

distribution or sharing out of resouces.

arbitrary:

seemingly random or without reason or system. Dependent on a whim.

atmosphere:

the envelope of gases surrounding the earth

autonomy:

partial self-government

backwash:

movement of water back towards the sea after a wave has broken

biodiversity:

the existence of a wide variety of plant and animal species in their natural environments

biomass:

the total weight of organisms, plant and animal, in a given area

calcareous:

a material or substance that contains or resembles calcium carbonate

carboniferous period:

a period 360 - 286 million years ago. It takes its name from the thick coal-producing carbon layers. This carbon was formed from the remains of swampy tropical forests that were flooded by shallow seas.

colonisation:

the establishment of political control by one country over another.

combustion:

burning, often used to describe the use of fuels

communal:

shared by all members of a community, for common use.

commune:

the smallest administrative unit in France, it may vary from a tiny village to a town

compensation:

something given or paid to make up for loss, suffering or injury.

coniferous:

trees bearing cones, usually evergreens like pine and larch

contamination:

pollution by unwanted or damaging material, often bacterial, chemical or radioactive

conurbation:

a group of towns with no gaps between them, forming one continuous urban area

corrasion:

erosion by material being driven into rock. This usually happens at the base of a cliff where eroded material is washed against the cliff face by wave action

corrode:

to destroy or wear away a substance, usually a metal, especially by chemical action

criterion:

the standard by which something is judged

decentralisation:

distribution of administrative power from central government to local control

deciduous:

trees which shed their leaves in winter

democracy:

a country having a government which is voted for by all its peoples, not elected by a small group

desulphurisation:

a process to remove sulphur from emissions. This is a vital process in reducing acid rain caused by power station discharges

dialect:

version of a language used within a particular area, often with unique words or grammar

displaced:

literally, moved from a usual or proper place. A displaced person is a refugee, someone who has been forced to leave their home because of war or persecution.

eustatic:

related to changes in the sea level caused by the advance and retreat of ice sheets

fallow:

farmed land which is left for a period without being sown.

famine:

starvation or severe lack of food and water. From an old Latin word meaning 'hunger'.

geomorphological:

relating to the physical features on the earth's surface and their formation

geothermal:

relating to heat from within the earth, here used to describe a source of energy

guerilla:

a bandit or soldier who operates by harassing the enemy in small groups

guerrilla(s):

a member or members of a small independent group taking part in irregular warfare. From the Spanish meaning 'little war'.

hectare:

a unit of land measuring 10,000 square metres.

human rights:

a right or rights (for instance to freedom of speech, freedom of movement, certain standards of life or treatment) which are believed to belong to every person and individual.

hydraulic:

literally, the movement of water along channels or pipes but related in this topic to erosion caused by water being forced into cracks in the rock

immigrant:

a person who has entered a country from abroad to become a permanent resident

independence (in the political sense):

freedom from colonial rule.

International Monetary Fund :

an organisation set up in 1945, affiliated to the United Nations which aims to promote trade, monetary co-operation and the stabilisation of exchange rates.

investment :

in this context, money put into financial schemes with the expectation of material results in the future.

isostatic:

the rise and fall of the land in relation to the sea

mainstay :

literally, the main mast of a ship. It is used to describe something that supports everything else, the most important thing.

metropolitan :

belonging to the mother country as distinct from colonies or other overseas territories

nutrient:

a substance which provides nourishment

GDP per capita :

a value of how much a person produces in a year. It is calculated by dividing the Gross Domestic Product for a country by the number of people who live there.

plantation :

a large farm concentrating on producing a single cash crop, usually for export.

poverty line :

the estimated minimum level of income needed to secure the necessities of life.

precipitation :

moisture falling from the sky, usually in the form of rain or snow

radiation:

the release of energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. Often used to describe the release of harmful substances during the production nuclear energy

radioactivity:

the spontaneous emission of radiation from atomic nuclei

recession:

in this example, it means a retreat or withdrawal

recolonise:

in this example referring to plants, it means to grow again in an area which has previously been cleared

ria:

a river valley drowned, usually because sea level has risen but it could be because the land level has fallen

sedimentary rocks:

Sedimentary rocks are produced by deposits of disintegrated matter from older rock forms, by deposits of animal or plant remains, or have been formed as the result of water being squeezed out of mineral rock over a period of time.

shifting cultivation :

a system of farming, usually operated in tropical regions, where land is cleared for cultivation, and then abandoned when it has lost its fertility

shingle:

small rounded pebbles, usually found on the beach

silting up:

the filling up of a channel with silt, which is a muddy or clayey sediment

strategic :

forming part of a long-term plan, often for military reasons.

subsidence:

sinking of the ground because of the removal of sub-surface layers, for example during mining

subsistence :

the growing of crops to feed oneself and family, with a little left over for sale.

subsistence :

a system of farming where the farmer grows sufficient food for the family, and where there is little surplus to sell for cash

swash:

movement of water up the beach away from the sea as a wave reaches the shore.

synthetic :

a product made artificially to imitate a natural product, for example rubber or a fibre

toxic:

poisonous, or relating to a poisonous substance

turbine:

a wheel driven by water or steam used to generate electricity

United Nations :

an association of countries set up in 1945 to promote peace, security and co-operation between nations.

vocational :

related to a particular trade or profession, often describing a type of training.

whinstone rock:

a dark, hard, fine-grained rock, such as basalt

return period:

can be defined generally as the average interval, in the long run, between events of a given size

migrant:

A migrant into the UK is a person who has resided abroad for a year or more and who states on arrival the intention to stay in the UK for a year or more. A migrant from the UK is a person who has resided in the UK for a year or more and who states on departure the intention to reside abroad for a year or more.

EEA:

European Economic Area (the single market of the EU plus Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein)

agent:

Someone who assists asylum seekers (and perhaps other migrants) to leave one country and gain entry to another in exchange for a (one-off) financial reward. Agents are different from traffickers since the latter exploit the migrant and transport them to another country for continued financial gain, even after they arrive in the destination country . Traffickers might, for example, force migrants into prostitution or make them work illegally.

asylum seeker:

Someone who has fled their country of origin in order to make an asylum claim in another country

Exceptional Leave to Remain (ELR):

In some cases, applicants who are refused asylum may be granted 'exceptional leave to remain'. This is a discretionary grant of leave made by the Home Secretary, allowing a person to stay in the UK for a limited period of time. Exceptional leave to remain may be granted for various reasons, bt it is most usually granted on compassionate or humanitarian grounds.

studentification:

The changes caused by a large number of students moving into a neighborhood or community, particularly university students attending a nearby school

juxtaposition:

position (a thing) beside another

Dark Lord Sauron:

Evil character from Lord of the Rings who wishes to enslave the good people of Middle Earth

Globalisation:

A process that concerns the integration of a global economy. The processes of global trade have gone on over the centuries, but globalisation has taken place rapidly over the past 100 years with advances in technology and reduced trade barriers

The General Agreement of Trade and Tariffs (GATT) :

An international agreement to promote trade and economic benefits signed in 1947. Its aim is to encourage free trade by imposing trade rules and reducing tariffs among its member nations (now over 117 member countries)

World Trade Organisation (WTO):

Established at Bretton Woods in 1947 along with GATT and IMF to support economic stability in international trade

International Monetary Fund (IMF):

An international financial organisation set up to promote trade by keeping currencies stable and having a fund of money from which member states may borrow

Structural Adjustment Policies (SAP):

Rules implemented by the International Monetary Fund and World Bank to encourage debt repayment by countries of the south reducing their spending on public services such as education and health care with social spending and development plans cut in favour of taking onboard initiatives. Such policies have been seen to increase conditions of poverty and the division between rich and poor countries around the globe

North American Free Trade Agreement :

Agreement made between the USA and Mexico in theory allowing free trade between the countries. In practise there are limited benefits that have been experienced by Mexico. A highly contentious international agreement

Neo-Liberalism :

In essence, Neoliberalism was a term coined in the 1990s and is meant to be about making trade between nations easier. In practise this has often allowed multinational companies greater power in gaining access to resources in countries to the detriment of the people and countries

Multilateral Agreement on Investments (MAIs) :

A proposal which would allow corporations to force governments to remove any laws that interfered with a companies gaining access to resources within a country. This concept was crushed by revolt in 1998, but its theory is still being pursued by corporate lobbyists at the WTO who are reasserting its concept as an ‘Investment Treaty’. One of the reasons why the G23 refused to agree to the terms of the meeting at WTO Cancun

Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs):

A USA backed ‘agreement’ which has seen private companies patenting a wide ranging array of aspects of the world, from rice seeds to public-funded AIDS drugs and then demanding high prices from the people who had access to these resources in the first place

fair trade :

An increasing global movement where local producers of goods and services receive fair prices at a living wage rather than losing profits to global trading markets and global market speculators

Tobin Tax :

Named after the economist James Tobin who was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1978, the Tobin Tax suggests that a 1% tariff be placed on foreign exchange transactions. Since speculative currency trades occur on smaller margins, the Tobin Tax would reduce profits from speculation markets which would allow for the stabilization of exchange rates allowing for countries to be able to plan their development as their would be a reduced amount of stock price fluctuations on global markets. The revenue generated from the Tobin tax could then be used to reduce hunger and poverty around the globe

grass roots:

ordinary people, or fundamental level or source

subduction zone:

The zone, at an angle to surface of the earth, down which a lithospheric plate descends

sustainable development :

one type of development that aims to: safeguard natural resources for future generations; increase standards of living without destroying the environment; satisfy basic needs such as food supply and water rather than large-scale developments which may be inappropriate; reduce waste; increases efficiency and recycling

genetic modification:

moving genetic material from the cells of one organism to those of another, be they related or unrelated

diaspora:

scattered or dispersed population

newly industrialized country (NIC):

country that has in recent decades experienced a breakthrough into manufacturing and rapid export-led economic growth. Good examples are Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, and South Korea.

division of labour:

the division of production into various parts in which different groups of workers specialise

one-child policy:

In 1979, after years of encouraging reproduction, the Chinese government implemented a policy known today as the one-child policy. The policy has at times been praised as an effective tool for ensuring that China will be able to continue to support its large population and at times reviled as a tool for human rights abuses and female infanticide

transnational corporations:

large companies that produce outside of their home country to: take advantage of cheaper labour, avoid trade barriers, tap into market potential in other world regions, avoid domestic environmental regulations and benfit from exchange rate advantages

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI):

The acquisition abroad of physical assets such as plant and equipment, with operating control residing in the parent corporation

take-off:

Industrialisation increases, with workers switching from the agricultural sector to the manufacturing sector. Growth is concentrated in a few regions of the country and in one or two manufacturing industries. The level of investment reaches over 10% of GNP

Rostow's model:

In the 1960's, the economist W.W. Rostow presented a model for economic development in which he proposed that all developing countries must pass through five successive stages of growth

Comparative advantage:

When one nation's opportunity cost of producing an item is less than another nation's opportunity cost of producing that item. A good or service with which a nation has the largest absolute advantage (or smallest absolute disadvantage) is the item for which they have a comparative advantage

genetically modified:

when the genes of a plant or animal are modified by human intervention. This has often taken place throughout history where humans have bred plants or animals for particular traits by reproducing within species; however, genetically modified plants and animals are now being created by multinational biotechnology industries that are looking at creating new plants and animals by mixing genes between species

Biopiracy:

a term coined by Dr Vandana Shiva with reference to the way that multinational companies are beginning to patent genes and plants as if they owned the living organisms themselves

The Green Revolution:

Agricultural technology initiative implemented and supported by the World Bank and International Monetary Fund to encourage greater productivity in agricultural regions in the world. Based heavily on investing in pesticides, herbicides and mechanisation, success was often limited to farmers who had the economic wealth to invest in such technologies. Often criticised for causing many farmers to go into debt and increasing environmental pollution

terminator technology:

The name given to a genetic technique which genetically disables plants from reproducing seed, making them infertile. This means that plants can grow from a seed, but if the seeds are treated with a chemical stimulant such as the antibiotic tetracycline, a genetic process triggered by the stimulant leads to the production of a toxin which, when the plant matures, makes the seeds sterile.

Biological hazard :

Pathogens, parasites and predators that directly threaten human life or interfere with agricultural systems. Improved understanding of biological hazards has made a greater contribution to increases in life expectancy than any other form of hazard management

Biome:

The world can be broadly divided into climatic regions that each has an associated ecosystem known as a biome. For instance, on a global scale the UK belongs to a zone that experiences a ‘cool temperate western margin’ climate. According to the theory of zonal soils, this results in the formation of a brown earth soil with an associated biome of deciduous summer forest (DSF)

Risk :

The likelihood of suffering adverse effects from a hazard

Isotherm:

Line on a climate map connecting points of equal average temperature

Zonal soils:

soils with a profile showing a dominant influence of climate and vegetation in its development, as contrasted with an Azonal Soil

azonal soil:

a young soil that lacks marked horizons, commonly because insufficient time has elapsed for climate and vegetation to create them

chaparral:

(in the southwestern U.S.) a dense growth of shrubs and trees, esp. evergreen oaks

dependency ratio :

The ratio of the economically dependent part of the population to the productive part; arbitrarily defined as the ratio of the elderly (ages 65 and older) plus the young (under age 15) to the population in the working ages (ages 15-64)

Demographic Transition :

Theory that suggests that the industrialization of a nation leads to declines in human death rates followed by declines in birth rates

Crude Birth rate (CBR) :

the number of births per 1,000 population in a given year

Crude death rate (CDR) :

the number of deaths per 1,000 people in a given year

Isostatic:

from isostasy, the state of balance, or equilibrium, which sections of the earth's lithosphere (whether continental or oceanic) are thought ultimately to achieve when the vertical forces upon them remain unchanged. The lithosphere floats upon the semifluid asthenosphere below. If a section of lithosphere is loaded, as by ice, it will slowly subside to a new equilibrium position; if a section of lithosphere is reduced in mass, as by erosion, it will slowly rise to a new equilibrium position

Eustatic:

relating to worldwide changes in sea level, caused by the melting of ice sheets, movements of the ocean floor, sedimentation, etc

Halosere :

Succession initiated in salt water

Managed realignment (retreat) :

Managed realignment (managed retreat) is a form of 'soft' engineering. In most cases it involves breaching an existing coastal defence, such as a sea wall or an embankment, and allowing the land behind to be flooded by the incoming tide, thus setting back the line of actively maintained coastline. This land is then left to be colonised by saltmarsh vegetation. When established, the vegetation disperses wave energy during storm events, reduces erosion rates and provides an important habitat for coastal flora and fauna. If the newly breached area is backed by low-lying land, a new embankment is usually constructed beforehand on the landward side of the site to reduce the risk of flooding. Although a relatively new idea, it is widely recognised that managed realignment can reduce the costs of coastal defence whilst offering numerous environmental benefits.

Hydrological hazard :

floods

halophytic:

pertaining to a plant adapted to living in a saline environment

Climax Community :

a community that is capable of perpetuation under the prevailing climatic and edaphic (soil) conditions

Climatic climax :

If you have a community that is disturbed by some agent (e.g. fire, ploughing, landslide, flooding), the community structure in that community is altered. Gradually the community will rebuild itself, tending towards a more stable structure that can be supported by the environment in that particular climate

Secondary succession :

Succession that occurs following a disturbance is called Secondary Succession

Plagioclimax:

a plant community permanently influenced by human activity

Net Primary Productivity :

depends on the rates of photosynthesis (producing carbohydrates) and respiration (consuming carbohydrates) and is the amount of organic matter produced overall at the autotroph level

Biomass:

the total weight of organisms under consideration (in a specified area or making up a particular trophic level or population) or the total weight of a species per unit area

Forestry Commission :

The Forestry Commission of Great Britain is the government department responsible for the protection and expansion of Britain's forests and woodlands

Biodiversity:

The number and variety of organisms found within a specified geographic region. Or, the variability among living organisms on the earth, including the variability within and between species and within and between ecosystems.

Stewardship:

the act of being employed to manage another’s property or land

Throughflow :

the flow of water down a slope through the soil as distinct from overland flow. It occurs when the quantity of water falling on the ground surface, or the rate at which it falls, is too great for it all to percolate sufficiently downwards into the soil

Overland flow :

surface runoff produced by sudden, heavy precipitation, often leading to soil erosion

flashy hydrographs:

To say that a hydrograph is flashy means that the graph depicts sharp vertical jumps and equally steep vertical declines. What this means for the actual stream represented by the graph is that a flashy stream is one that exhibits significantly increased flows immediately following the onset of a precipitation event and a rapid return to pre-rain conditions shortly after the end of the precipitation

brown earth soils :

name sometimes used for a range of zonal soils with merging horizons, generally associated with the midlatitudes formally covered with deciduous woodland.

Aquifer:

an underground geological formation or group of formations that contain water, a source of ground water for wells and springs

Groundwater:

Sub-surface water or water stored in pores, cracks, and crevices in the ground below the water table

Percolation :

The movement of water downward and radially through the subsurface soil layers, usually continuing downward to the groundwater

Plate tectonics :

A theory supported by a wide range of evidence that considers the earth's crust and upper mantle to be composed of several large, thin, relatively rigid plates that move relative to one another. Slip on faults that define the plate boundaries commonly results in earthquakes. Several styles of faults bound the plates, including thrust faults along which plate material is subducted or consumed in the mantle, oceanic spreading ridges along which new crustal material is produced, and transform faults that accommodate horizontal slip (strike slip) between adjoining plates

Geophysical hazard :

Includes natural hazards where the principal causal agent is climatic and meteorological (e.g floods, hurricanes and droughts) or natural hazards where the principle causal agent is geological and geomorphological (e.g. landslides, tsunamis and earthquakes). They do not include biological hazards, both floral and faunal, such as fungal diseases, poisonous plants, viral diseases and infestations or locusts

Epicentre:

the point on the Earth's surface directly above the focus of an earthquake

Transverse fault :

A fault that strikes obliquely or perpendicular to the general trend of the region

Conservative margin :

where two plates slide jerkily past each other (also known as transform faults)

Local governance :

a way of managing local public affairs characterised by the good performance of local authorities with the participation of local people in partnership with local public and private sector units

Greenfield:

A piece of usually semi rural property that is undeveloped except for agricultural use, especially one considered as a site for expanding urban development

Brownfield:

A piece of industrial or commercial property that is abandoned or underused and often environmentally contaminated, especially one considered as a potential site for redevelopment

Regional Selective Assistance grant (RSA) :

discretionary grant which provides assistance towards projects with fixed capital expenditure over £500,000 and which will create or safeguard employment in the ‘Assisted Areas'

Assisted Areas :

located in the English regions have considerable development potential, with an available workforce, competitive labour costs and high labour flexibility. They share the benefits the UK as a whole holds for investors, namely market proximity, good communications, economic stability, low taxes, the language of business, flexible labour markets, deregulated business environment, depth of capital markets, industrial infrastructure and a government that welcomes investment and enterprise

inward investment :

monies flowing into a country that originate from other countries. E.g. a Japanese company building a factory in South Wales

clawback:

finding a way to take money back from people that they were given in another way; "the Treasury will find some clawback for the extra benefits members received

Amicus:

the largest manufacturing union in the United Kingdom, with over one million members in the public and private sectors

Accumulation (ice) :

– the net gain in an ice mass. The sources of accumulation are direct snowfall and avalanching from higher slopes

Ablation :

the process of wastage of snow or ice, especially by melting

Abrasion:

the process of wearing down or rubbing away by means of friction

Plucking :

erosion process carried out by glaciers. Water enters cracks in rocks , freezes and detaches rock fragment, which become frozen to, and carried away by, the under surface of the glacier as it moves along

Freeze-thaw:

form of weathering where the temperature hovers around freezing point, below which frost breaks up the rock and above which the ice melts, so that water flows and carries away rock fragments

Frost wedging :

caused by the repeated freeze-thaw cycle of water in extreme climates. Water seeps into the joint or cracks in rocks. When it then freezes, the expanding ice places pressure on the joints in the rock. Finally, when the pressure is too much, the joint expands. In some cases, the rock will split, though this usually happens after repeated freeze and thaws. As new water is added during the warmer days, more ice is created at night, wedging the joints apart further

Inter-pore ice crystal growth (frost shattering) :

water expands when it freezes, it can causes rocks to break apart. Water can seep into small cracks in a rock or other substance. When the water freezes, it expands, causing the rock to break apart

Firn:

Granular, partially consolidated snow that has passed through one summer melt season but is not yet glacial ice

Basal sliding :

the sliding of a glacier over bedrock. This process is generally aided by the presence of meltwater at the rock/ice boundary

Internal deformation:

The rearrangement of the planes within ice crystals, due to pressure from overlying ice and snow, that causes the downward or outward flow of a glacier

Laminar ice flow:

the movement of a glacier along a slope caused by the thrust of the weight of solid ice in the upper part

Gondwanaland :

The hypothetical protocontinent of the Southern Hemisphere that, according to the theory of plate tectonics, broke up into India, Australia, Antarctica, Africa, and South America

Wilderness :

An unsettled, uncultivated region left in its natural condition

Time-space convergence:

First suggested by Janelle (1968), it refers to the diminishing time needed to connect two places by transportation due to improving transport technologies

Ecotourism:

Tourism involving travel to areas of natural or ecological interest, typically under the guidance of a naturalist, for the purpose of observing wildlife and learning about the environment

Ansel Adams:

1902-1984, Photographer, conservationist; born in San Francisco. A commercial photographer for 30 years, he made visionary photos of western landscapes that were inspired by a boyhood trip to Yosemite

longline fishing :

a system or method of fishing by means of a number of hooks set on snoods (a short line connecting a fishing line with the hook) all on one line

bioprospecting:

entails the search for economically valuable genetic and biochemical resources from nature

extremophile:

an organism which thrives under "extreme" conditions; the term frequently refers to unicellular organisms. Extremophiles often require the extreme condition for growth. The definition of "extreme" is anthropocentric, of course, to the organism itself its environment is completely normal

economy of scale :

The decrease in unit manufacturing cost that is due to mass production

hypermarket:

a huge supermarket (usually built on the outskirts of a town)

tipping point :

the critical point or threshold over which a rapid change occurs

re-urbanisation :

the development of existing urban areas with new building and improved infrastructure

Gentrification:

The restoration and upgrading of deteriorated urban property by middle-class or affluent people, often resulting in displacement of lower-income people

negative externalities :

An externality is an effect of a purchase or use decision by one set of parties on others who did not have a choice and whose interests were not taken into account. Classic example of a negative externality: pollution, generated by some productive enterprise, and affecting others who had no choice and were probably not taken into account.

sphere of influence :

In urban geography, an area which depends on an urban centre for various services, or which it has special relations.

rural-urban fringe :

An intermediate transition zone around a town or city where urban functions and activities impinge on those that are agricultural and rural.

multiplier effect :

process whereby one change sets in motion a sequence of events that result in decline or growth

pandemic:

disease prevalent over a whole country or the world or the outbreak of such a disease

seismic gap theory :

theory suggesting that a large and longstanding ``seismic gap'' is usually interpreted to mean that a significant earthquake should be expected

backwash:

effect where by an area (periphery) is drained of investment and skilled labour an area with an initial advantage (core)

deindustrialisation :

To undergo or suffer loss of industrial infrastructure and potential

core and periphery :

areas with different degrees of economic development. Within any particular region or country, development is unlikely to take place evenly. Areas with geographical advantages (such as soil fertility, raw materials, and access to trade routes) will become more developed than others. These are the core areas, where capital, infrastructure, and employment are concentrated, leaving periphery areas that lack these resources. Core and periphery regions may be identified at many levels. On a national scale, for example, the UK has a northern periphery and southeast core.

cumulative causation :

the process by which economic activity leading to prosperity and increasing economic development tends to concentrate in an area with an initial advantage, draining investment and skilled labour from the peripheral area (part of the backwash effect).

primary industry :

activity concerned with the collecting or making available of material provided by nature

tertiary industry :

activity concerned with service to primary and secondary industries, the community and to the individual

rationalisation:

process of bringing modern, efficient methods to an activity (an industry, for example).

nationalisation:

changing something from private to state ownership or control

OPEC:

acronym for Organization of Petroleum-Exporting Countries a body established 1960 to protect the interests and avoid the exploitation of certain oil-producing countries, notably Iran, Iraq, Kuwait,

bilateral:

Affecting or undertaken by two sides equally; binding on both parties: a bilateral agreement; bilateral negotiations.

unilateral:

Performed or undertaken by only one side: unilateral disarmament. Obligating only one of two or more parties, nations, or persons, as a contract or an agreement

underdevelopment:

Having a low level of economic productivity and technological sophistication within the contemporary range of possibility; developing: underdeveloped countries.

tariff :

A list or system of duties imposed by a government on imported or exported goods

economy:

The organisation of money and resources within a nation, especially in terms of production, distribution and consumption of goods and services.

financial:

To do with the management and study of money, economics and finance.

human rights :

the rights of all humans to justice and freedom. The declaration of human rights set out after the second world war to support every person’s right to shelter, food, education and acceptable working conditions.

profit :

Money gained for selling something for more than one paid for it. An excess of income over expenses. Advantage or benefit.

trade agreements :

Rules established in the way buying or selling of goods and services nationally and internationally.

trade unions :

Organisations formed to protect the interests of employees and workers so as to improve working conditions.

workers rights :

Standards of working conditions established to protect the needs and rights of workers.

overpopulation:

excessive population of an area to the point of overcrowding, depletion of natural resources, or environmental deterioration

census:

official gathering of information about the population in a particular area. The data collected are used by government departments in planning for the future in such areas as health, education, transport,

decision-making :

the cognitive process of reaching a decision

peak discharge :

in a river, the maximum volume of water passing a certain point per unit of time.

groundwater:

water collected underground in porous rock strata; it emerges at the surface as springs and streams. The ground water's upper level is called the water table.

dynamic equilibrium :

when two processes occur at the same rate, a dynamic equilibrium will form

externality:

An incidental condition that may affect a course of action: “Our economic system treats environmental degradation as an externality: a cost that does not enter into the conventional arithmetic that determines how we use our resources” (Barry Commoner).

infiltration:

the downward movement of water into the soil. The rate of absorption of surface water by soil (the infiltration capacity) depends on the amount of surface water, the permeability and compactness of the soil,and the extent to which it is already saturated with water. Once in the soil, water may pass into the bedrock to form a ground water.

emerging market :

A market of a developing country, usually a small market with a short operating history

least-cost location:

the siting of industry in a place where the costs of transport and labour, and the advantages of industrial agglomeration are most favourable in economic terms.

margins of profitability :

Smith's model defines margins of profitability as the theoretical boundaries to the area within which a profit can be made

isotim:

lines of equal cost, showing increasing cost with distance.

isodapane:

line showing variations in total costs, the product of isotims.

economies of scale :

a situation in which an increase in the scale at which a business operates will lead to a reduction in unit costs.

signifier:

something that gives meaning with a sign or word.

postmodern simulacrum :

an image originated from a reflection of the reality that becomes, through masking the absence of the reality, an independently existing simulacrum that has no relation to any reality (Appignanesi, 1995: 130-132).

simulacrum:

An image or representation; an unreal or vague semblance.

Underemployment:

An economic condition marked by the fact that individuals actively seeking jobs remain unemployed

primate city:

The primate city is the largest most dominant city in a region. The degree of primacy refers to the dominance of the largest city over the rest of the country. Most LEDCs have a high degree of primacy while most MEDCs have a low degree of primacy. Factors that affect high primacy include: having an underdeveloped economy, having an agriculturally dominant economy, a rapidly expanding population, a recent colonial history

primacy:

the state of being first or foremost

trade bloc :

A group of nations united for the common action of free trade. It is a large free trade zone or near-free trade zone formed by one or more tax, tariff and trade agreements

footloose:

term to describe an industry which by the nature of the raw material used and its labour, market and transport needs is not tied to a particular location

snow-line:

The lower altitudinal boundary of a snow-covered area, above which snow never completely disappears.

demographic transition model:

A general theory linking a linear sequence of economic changes with the lowering of vital rates. The model distinguishes between four markedly different demographic phases: traditional ‘high & fluctuating’ (agrarian: no growth), early and late transitional (industrial/early capitalist: rapid growth) and advanced ‘low and fluctuating’ (late capitalist: no growth, possible decline). Based on UK and Scandinavian data, it gives some insight into European history and a starting point when speculating about the future countries currently experiencing rapid population increase.

population pyramid:

The population is divided into age groups known as cohorts on the vertical axis (e.g. 25-29) while the x-axis is divides into male and female either side of the y-axis. The number in each age group is given as a percentage of the total population and is shown by horizontal bars with males to the left and females to the right.

regressive pyramid:

An advanced nation produces a population pyramid with a columnar form indicating that almost all of those born survive to the age of at least seventy, hence the perpendicular sides. With a relatively low birth rate, the base appears to be relatively narrow.

stationary pyramid:

A population with a high rate of natural increase and relatively low life expectancy will have a population pyramid with a wide base and sides inclined at an angle of around 45 degrees.

Human Development Index:

A combined measure of economic and social development that includes life expectancy, adult literacy rates and Purchasing Power Parity (a modified form of Gross Domestic Product per capita)

paradigm:

A set of assumptions, concepts, values, and practices that constitutes a way of viewing reality for the community that shares them, especially in an intellectual discipline.

Canadian tar sand reserves:

Canadian tar sand is strip mined and hauled in trucks to a facility that uses solvents, detergents, heat and centrifuges to extract bitumen, a tarry substance. (The local indigenous people used bitumen to waterproof their canoes.) The heat comes from local stranded natural gas. (Stranded natural gas is gas that can not be exported out of the local area because there is not enough of it to justify the expense of the construction of a pipeline.) Bitumen is not suitable as feedstock for oil refineries because it is low in hydrogen. Condensates from the same local stranded natural gas are available to add to the bitumen to increase the hydrogen content. The result is called synthetic oil and it is a suitable feedstock for oil refineries. The entire process is energy intensive.

carrying capacity :

the optimum number of people that can be sustained by an environment and its resources

accretion :

Slow addition to land by deposition of water-borne sediment or an increase of land along the shores of a body of water, as by alluvial deposit.

delta:

A usually triangular alluvial deposit at the mouth of a river or a similar deposit at the mouth of a tidal inlet, caused by tidal currents.

desalination :

the removal of salt (especially from sea water)

salinisation:

the accumulation of salt in water or soil

ecological footprint :

an ecological footprint is a calculation of the area of biologically productive land and water required for a given population to exist at a given consumption level. Web-based footprint calculators typically focus upon consumption patterns of the individual lifestyle.

spit:

A long, narrow extension of a beach that extends out into the sea or across an estuary or bay. Spits develop when longshore drift carries sand and/or shingle beyond the end of a beach into open water. The area behind a spit is sheltered from wind and waves and under low energy conditions deposition of sediment can occur. A salt marsh usually develops there, eventually colonised by vegetation (halosere development).

morphology:

the study of shapes in landscapes

Communist:

A member of a Marxist-Leninist party.

communist:

often a radical viewed as a subversive or revolutionary

mudslide:

relatively slow moving, lobate or elongate masses of softened, argillaceous debris which advance chiefly by sliding on discrete boundary shear surfaces

lobate:

shaped like a lobe

argillaceous:

Containing, made of, or resembling clay; clayey

fatalistic:

No action is taken (when faced with a hazard). Stress is tolerated and accepted, perhaps seen as an ‘Act of God’ in pre-industrial societies that do not have a scientific explanation for a Natural Hazard

Maquiladoras:

assembly plants in Mexico, especially ones along the border between the United States and Mexico, to which foreign materials and parts are shipped and from which the finished product is returned to the original market

New International Division of Labour :

Spread of different stages of manufacturing to locations in different countries, to exploit differences in factor costs and economies of scale; more generally, since late 1970s, process in which especially Asian countries assume key roles in certain industries (cf. commodity chains)

population structure :

means the division of a population into a series of sub-groups according to criteria such as age, sex, income or ethnicity

ward :

a neighbourhood of around 5,000 people

Line of Control:

refers to the military control line between India and Pakistan, in the province of Kashmir

partisan de-alignment:

this means that fewer voters are "strongly attached" to a political party - the emotional bond of loyalty between voter and his/her party is in decline implying that the electorate is becoming more volatile in its voting behaviour and more likely to adopt a judgemental approach before casting a vote.

succession:

The gradual and orderly process of ecosystem development brought about by changes in community composition and the production of a climax characteristic of a particular geographical region

Climatic climax community:

community of organisms, especially plants, is stable and capable of perpetuating itself, developed in a local climate which differs from the climate normal to the area

biodiversity:

the number of species in a given habitat

stewardship:

stewardship of the environment concerns protecting the environment through recycling, conservation, regeneration, and restoration

subclimax:

stage in the ecological succession of a plant or animal community immediately preceding a climax, and often persisting because of the effects of fire, flood, or other conditions

Emotional Geographies:

how the way someone feels can influence the way they experience particular times and places / spaces. Geographers who have researched about these include Liz Bondi, Chris Philo and Hester Parr.

Geographies of Exclusion:

Title of the Geographer David Sibley’s 1995 book noting the way that people react and recreate spaces of belonging and – counter to that – spaces of exclusion where people do not belong in certain times and spaces because of various reasons.

Geographies of transgression:

consider how people use different ways to subvert and cross boundaries that exclude people from one place and time to make access more equal and just. Geographers who have researched about these include Keith Halfacree.

Neo-Nazi:

A member of a minority extreme right fascist group who support the racist, sexist and homophobic viewpoints of Adolf Hitler.

Racism:

Discrimination and prejudice based on someone’s race

Participatory decision making:

The process through which people have equal access in discussing and controlling future plans and developments for a community; thereby power is shared between people rather than held by few.

Sweated labour:

The term referring to the long hours and poor conditions endured by people, especially young women and children working in – amongst others – clothing manufacturing industries in South East Asia as a result of loopholes in international trading allowing western corporations to get cheap labour for their products.

Green washing:

Hybrid term referring to ‘green’ elements of environmentalism and ‘white-washing’ the process of covering over dubious behaviour. Term used in reference to companies who have been and are known to cause environmental problems who claim to be improving their record through press releases and Media ‘spin’.

moratorium:

a suspension of an ongoing or planned activity

Carbon footprint:

Carbon Footprint is a measure of the impact human activities have on the environment in terms of the amount of green house gases produced, measured in units of carbon dioxide (tons) as a result of fossil fuels being used to provide energy for homes, personal transport and the manufacture and transport of goods for personal consumption.

Food miles:

The distance food travels from the farm to consumer, or field to plate.

System:

a group or combination of interrelated, interdependent, or interacting elements forming a collective entity.

Enhanced greenhouse effect:

The concept that the natural greenhouse effect has been enhanced by anthropogenic (human related) emissions of greenhouse gases.

Glocalisation:

Glocalization fuses globalisation and localisation together to give a combined meaning. By definition, the term “glocal” refers to the individual, group, and community which is willing and is able to “think globally and act locally.” The term has been used to show the human capacity to bridge scales (from local to global) and to help overcome meso-scale, bounded, "little-box" thinking.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP):

The total value of goods and services produced in a country in one year.

Moment Magnitude Scale:

The moment magnitude scale was introduced in 1979 by Thomas C. Hanks and Hiroo Kanamori as a successor to the Richter scale and is used by seismologists to compare the energy released by earthquakes. Large earthquakes with a long rupture length are not well represented by the Richter Scale (RS). The reason is that seismic waves used to measure a large earthquake come from only a small part of the fault rupture and do not accurately represent the total energy release in the event. Therefore, for events over RS =6.5 it is more usual to employ the moment magnitude scale which is based on the surface area of the fault displaced, its average length of movement and the rigidity of the ground material, rather than on a seismograph trace. One difference is that, whilst no earthquake of RS = >9 has ever been recorded, several of the largest events have achieved magnitude = >9 status.

Remitance :

A transfer of money by a foreign worker to his home country

brain-drain:

A large emigration of individuals with technical skills or knowledge, normally due to conflict, lack of opportunity, political instability, or health risks. Brain drain is usually regarded as an economic cost, since emigrants usually take with them the fraction of value of their training sponsored by the government.